Study On The Olmec Culture

Study On The Olmec Culture The Olmec culture has been the focus of intense discussion and archeological exploration in recent years. It is considered to be one of the most interesting and also one of the mysterious ancient civilizations. The Olmec civilization is considered to be the first known ordered civilization to arise in Mesoamerica. It was also the first civilization in the region to build huge monumental temple mounds and building. In the Pre1classic Period, the period when this civilization flourished, the following Gulf Coast sites were occupied in overlapping succession; Firstly, San Lorenzo Tenochtitlan, which was occupied between 1450 and 400 BC., then at La Venta from 2250- 500 BC And Zapotes from 1000-50 BC. One of the most remarkable relics that we have of this culture is seventeen enormous stone heads. The stone used to carve the statues was transported from a great distance which implies the reach and extent of this civilization, as well as its spread and influence. These and other aspects of the culture will be discussed in more detail below. The Olmec culture and society has been described as extremely well organized with à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦complex calendar and hieroglyphic writing system as well as unique art objects of a very high standard. However, scholars also admit that there is a great paucity of archeological and other evidence and knowledge about this mysterious and complex civilization.We know far less about the Olmecs than we do about, for example, the Aztecs and Mayans. There are very few written records to tell us about the culture. The Olmec culture and civilization is estimated have begun in about 1200 B.C. and ended around 600 A.D. During this period the Olmec were the main group or culture in Mesoamerica. What is certain about this culture is the importance and centrality of religion, shamanism and religious ritual in their daily lives. There is as general consensus that religion and belief in the supernatural influenced every aspect of their lives. Olmec sites are characterized the prominent position of the ceremonial mounds and later by elaborate pyramids that were erected for worship and possibly for sacrifice. As one study on this aspect notes; As the clock tower often defines the center of Western town squares, a central raised mound signaled the center of Olmec cities. These mounds were used for religious ceremonies and around 900 BC, they were replaced with pyramids. The following discussion will refer to the various aspects of the culture, as well as their art and religion in an attempt to provide a comprehensive overview of what is known about the mysterious and influential Olmec. Origins The term Olmec means rubber people in Nahuatl, the language of the Aztec. It was the name that the Aztecs used to refer to those people and the culture that had existed in the area of the Olmec Heartland during the fifteenth and sixteenth century. Simply stated the name means à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦those who live in the rubber land, which refers to the à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦practice of extracting latex from Castilla elastica, a rubber tree in the area. There is a general paucity of solid data and information about the origins and the life-world of the Olmec culture. Our understanding of the civilization is made even more obscure by the fact that they did not appear to have a system of writing that would have provided records of their culture. As one commentator states; If the Olmec ever had a written language, all traces of it have disappeared. Even their bones are gone, rotted long ago in the humid rain forest. Virtually everything that scholars know about them is based on the remains of cities and on comparisons between their artifacts and imagery and those of later civilizations. It isnt surprising, therefore, that while the experts have plenty of theories about the Olmecs origins, social structure and religion, few of these ideas are universally accepted. Therefore, it is difficult to make incontrovertible and conclusive statements about the Olmec. In terms of what Historians and archaeologists know about the Mesoamerican Pre-Classic period, which extended from 1200 BCE-400 BCE, the Olmec civilization was the most dominant and influential during this time. The centre of this civilization at its peak was situated in La Venta in Tabasco, and San Lorenzo Tenochtitlan and Laguna de los Cerros in Veracruz. There are many theories and views about the origins of the Olmec. One theory that is often referred to is they were part of the immigration of Asiatic hunter-gatherers to the region after the ice-age. Another view that has achieved some credibility is that they were of African origin. The view that the Olmec civilization was of African origin seems to be partly substantiated by the large carved heads that possibly depict various rulers and which have African features. Some writers claim the Olmec were related to peoples of Africa based primarily on their interpretation of facial features of Olmec statues. This viewpoint is also allegedly supported by genetic and osteological evidence. This was a theory that was first put forward by Josà © Melgar, who discovered the first colossal head at Hueyapan. Some researchers such as Winters link the early origins of the Olmec with the Mandà © people of West Africa. However, this theory is very contentious and the proposed evidence has not lived up to modern scrutiny; for example, research during the past two decades has à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦failed to yield evidence of pre-Columbian African contributions to the indigenous populations of the Americas. Another factor that goes against the view of an African origin to the Olmec is that the people of the region were very susceptible to diseases brought by the Europeans. This means that the Mesoamericans of the region has been isolated for a considerable time, which in turn goes against a theory of origins that would include contact with the African continent. There are numerous other theories, including the contention that the Olmec were of Chinese origin. This view states that the original Olmec were Chinese refugees who came to the region during the Shang dynasty. However, this view is not supported by the majorly of researchers. Most researchers are of the view that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦the Olmec and their achievements arose from influences and traditions that were wholly indigenous to the region, or at least the New World, and there is no reliable material evidence to suggest otherwise. This view suggests that the Olmec and the subsequent cultures that developed in the region had their own specific and indigenous character and heritage and that they were independent of any outside influences. The study of the origins and development of the Olmec culture is steeped in mystery and doubt. Another issue that is debated is the transformation of the possible hunter-gatherer origins of the Olmec into a highly successful agricultural society. As one pundit comments; à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦archaeologists dont know what transformed a society of farmers into the class-based social structure of the Olmec, with their leaders and commoners, bosses and laborers, artisans and priests. Spread and Influence The mysterious Olmec civilization is estimated to have reached its peak a thousand years before the great Mayan civilization of Central America and twenty-five centuries before there Aztecs. This ancient civilization was extremely influential and affected many other cultures and tribes in the region, as one article states; Starting in 1200 B.C. in the steamy jungles of Mexicos southern Gulf Coast, the Olmecs influence spread as far as modern Guatemala, Honduras, Belize, Costa Rica and El Salvador. They built large settlements, established elaborate trade routes and developed religious iconography and rituals, including ceremonial ball games, blood-letting and human sacrifice, that were adapted by all the Mesoamerican civilizations to follow. Therefore, the Olmec were influential on a number of interconnected levels, from trade and economics to religion and cultural practices. David M. Jones ( 2007) states that the art and the architectural styles of the Olmec were influential in the region. The Olmec art style and architectural organization of ceremonial spaces were exported in the early stages of long-distance trading networks and, possibly, empire-building. What is clear from research into the spread and influence of this culture is that it influenced Gulf Coast as well as spreading inland to the Basin of Mexico and to the states of Morelos, Guerrero and Oaxaca. The Importance of Olmec Culture The importance of the Olmec culture lay in their inventiveness and their discoveries which influenced later civilizations that arose in the area. They à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦developed many things culturally and religiously that were later used by the Mayans and Aztecs and many other cultures. Many of their ideas spread throughout the region. In terms of farming and agriculture, for example, there there is strong evidence that the Olmec were responsible for the invention of a method of irrigation that was to influence the agricultural techniques of the Maya and Aztecs. This also applies to the water system that archeologist have found at the sites of Olmec cities. This refer to the finding that the à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦most important features of an Olmec town center was a buried network of stone drain lines long U-shaped rectangular blocks of basalt laid end to end and covered with capstones. Social and Political Life There is a general paucity of information about the actual societal and political structure of the Olmec. While there is not much evidence to build a comprehensive picture of the daily and social life of these people, there is enough available data from certain archeological sites to provide some reasonable speculations. One of the assumptions that is derived from the excavation of sites at San Lorenzo and then at La Venta is that the society was very centralized. This in turn has led to the view that the society was highly structured, with a hierarchical basis of order and class stratification. This also implies the existence of a ruling elite and a system of power and control, which was possibly based on religious beliefs. This view of the structure of the society is summarized as follows: Olmec society was à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦highly centralized, with a strongly hierarchical structure and elite that was able to use their control over materials, such as monumental stone and water, to exert control over the people and legitimize their regime. There is also clear evidence of a class structure in Olmec society. This is the view for example of Olmec scholars like Ann Cyphers. She states that there is evidence of elaborate houses for the elite or upper classes, while there are simpler housing structures for the middle and lower classes. As one study notes, The architecture of the Olmec was complex. Structures in Lorenzo, for example, included public-ceremonial buildings, elite residences, and houses for commoners (a clear separation of the classes). Cyphers also makes the important point that archeological research indicates that the society was extremely complex in structure and stratification; All these things show a society of great complexityà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Scholars are also of the opinion that the society was possibly a complex unity of various chiefdoms. These groups interacted on a religious and cultural level. Agriculture and farming played as vital part in the culture of these people. Besides the obvious fact of sufficient foods and nutrition it has also been seen by experts and being as tool in the politics of the society. As a study by Amber M. VanDerwarker (2006) indicates, the increase in the size and complexity of the society coincided with the development of village agriculture, which à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦has led scholars to theorize that agricultural surpluses gave aspiring Olmec leaders control over vital resources and thus a power base on which to build authority and exact tribute. Central to the society and social life was religious ceremony and ritual. This is evident in the large and centrally situated ceremonial centers. There are however some views that suggest a slightly different social structure. This refers to the view that as a result of the slash-and burn agriculture and crop-rotation that was practiced, most of the people would have lived in smaller villages and hamlets. Although the river banks were used to plant crops between flooding periods, the Olmec also likely practiced swidden (or slash-and-burn) agriculture to clear the forests and shrubs, and to provide new fields once the old fields were exhausted. The development of an agricultural economy also had a number of social implications. With the increase of an agricultural economy more people were needed to manage and administer the resources which led to a division of labor and a class structure in the society. The ones who controlled the rich farm land would naturally have been the ones who would rise up as the Elite of the community because they controlled the food supply, and as part of the management of resources, a central center had to be established. A number of theorists are of the opinion that the development of agriculture was the impetus which led to the expansion and development of the Olmec civilization. This would also have led to its influence through trade on the surrounding regions. As one study o0n this aspect notes: A new elite class probably asserted its leadership through charisma, control of trade networks and control of people, all of which led to the evolution of a complex society and, eventually, the art style we call Olmec. 5. Art There is as general agreement among scholars that the Olmec civilization producedà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦the earliest sophisticated art in Mesoamerica and that their distinctive style provided a model for the Maya, Aztec and other later civilizations in the region. There are also certain changes in Olmec art over time that should be noted. One is that before 900 B.C. most of the art tend to be ceramic, while later objects were made form jade and serpentine; which were rare materials that required considerable skill to fashion. However, what has fascinated people for centuries is the subject matter and the significance of the figures in Olmec art. There are a number of subjects that are often repeated in Aztec art. These include dragons, birds, dwarfs, hunchbacks and, most important, the jaguar or more correctly the were-jaguar that is part human, part jaguar. It should also be made clear that art in this culture, as in many other ancient cultures, cannot be separated from the spiritual and religious underlying life of that culture. The art and shamanic and spiritual aspects of the society are inextricably intertwined. Olmec art is essentially an expression of the religious beliefs that permeated the entire society. A case in point is the image of the jaguar that is so dominant in Olmec art. The jaguar represents a belief system that was deeply involved in the supernatural and the shamanic vision of reality. The jaguar figure in Olmec art is similar to a number of other figures in that it shows a combination of or transition between human and animal. It must be remembered that in many ancient worldviews there is no distinction between the human and natural world. In other words, many ancient belief systems do not adhere to the more modern distinction between man and nature. The jaguar figure in Olmec art is possibly therefore a representation of this belief system where the barriers between humanity and nature and between man and animal is seen as illusionary or has been broken down. The above refers particularly to the shamanic perception of reality, where transformation of man to animal is seen part of the ability of the shaman. The shaman has the facility to change his or her form in order to achieve certain supernatural ends. Linked with this was the belief that was prevalent among the Olmec that, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ each individual has an animal spirit. This refers as well to the general shamanic views about power animals. Shamans believe that everyone has power animals animal spirits which reside with each individual adding to their power and protecting them from illness, acting similarly to a guardian angel. Each power animal that you have increases your power so that illnesses or negative energy cannot enter your body. The spirit also lends you the wisdom of its kind. A hawk spirit will give you hawk wisdom, and lend you some of the attributes of hawk. The above quotation provides some insight into the way that the Maya possibly understood the link between man, nature and the supernatural. This shamanic aspect can be seen in the important figure of the jaguar. It is also worth reiterating the fact that Olmec art, like many ancient cultures, cannot be considered in isolation from the religious and spiritual beliefs of the civilization. This is an aspect that will be explored in more detail in the following section on religion. The jaguar was also very important for Olmec culture in that it was linked to one of their central gods. The jaguar was also referred to as nahual, which is an animal that is so closely related to a certain man, that if the animal dies, the man will also die. From another angle, jaguars were also seen as the alter ego of the shaman. The following provides insight into the reason why the jaguar figure was revered and why it was so prominent in Olmec art To the ancient Indians the jaguar was a symbol of supernatural forces-not a simple animal, but an ancestor and a god. In order to understand the significance of the jaguar figure one has to suspend the modern dualistic view of the world and reality that makes rational distinctions between man and nature and between the known and the unknown. The Olmec lived in a world where such distinctions were seen as illusionary and the jaguar was a symbol of this belief and a conduit between this world and the supernatural. As we explore the literature on Olmec art the references to the jaguar image also become more complex and intertwined when we enter further into the often confusing world of Olmec myth and religion. For example, in Olmec imagery we also encounter a werejaguar baby. This refers to the offspring of a jaguar mother and a human father. This mating à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦resulted in a race of infants combining the features of the jaguar and man in varying degrees. These are usually shown as somewhat infantile throughout life, with the puffy features of small fat babies, snarling mouths, fangs, and perhaps even claws. These werejaguars were deities of thunder, lightening, and rain. This in turn can be linked to depictions of an Olmec God who was half jaguar, half serpent. 5.1. Olmec Heads ( Source: http://www.theancientweb.com/explore/content.aspx?content_id=19) Another predominant characteristic of Olmec art are their distinct human heads and faces. As one commentator notes, Olmec-style human figures typically have squarish facial features with full lips, a flat nose, pronounced jowls and slanting eyes reminiscent (at least to early travelers in the region) of African or Chinese peoples. . There are seventeen of these massive heads and they are presumed to have been sculpted between 1200 B.C. and 900 B.C. The stone used is volcanic basalt and the height ranges from 5 ft. to 11 ft. and they weigh as much as 20 tons. The heads have been located at the following places; ten heads at San Lorenzo, four heads at La Venta , two at Tres Zapotes and one at Rancho La Cobata. One of the fascinating and intriguing aspects of the heads is that experts do not know how these large stones were transported over such long distances. Archaeologists still have not determined how the Olmec transported the basalt from quarries to various settlements as far as 80 miles awayand, in San Lorenzo, hoisted it to the top of a plateau some 150 ft. high. However it is the meaning of the heads that has made them such a source of interest and mystery. Experts conjecture that the heads were possibly representations of well- known and revered citizens or leaders. This however does not explain the facts that many of the heads have been intentionally defaced. There are two possible explanations for this. The one is that they were damaged when the leader or prominent figure depicted in the statue fell out of favor. However, taking into account the shamanic and religious nature of the culture, the second explanation is more likely. This refers to the sacrifice of the gods in order to replenishment and renewal of the earth and the relationship between man and the universe. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦the Olmecs did this themselves after a ruler died as a sacrifice to the gods or animal spirits. This form of sacrifice is also encountered in other ancient cultures and might explain the damage to the statues. Innovations The Olmec are credited with a number of major innovations in Mesoamerican history. However, there is still a great deal of speculation and debate about these innovations. They include the origins of the Mesoamerican ballgame, as well as aspects such as bloodletting and sacrifice, as well as writing and the invention of Zero. There is little doubt that the Olmec civilization had a far-reaching effect on the region one needs only refer to the complex political and social structure that was developed. Their political arrangements of strongly hierarchical city-state kingdoms were repeated by nearly every other Mexican and Central American civilization that followed. They are also credited with providing the basis for religious mythologies that were imitated in other civilizations. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦the Olmec formulated the forerunners of many of the later Mesoamerican deities. There is considerable debate among scholars as to whether the Olmec invented a writing system and whether they were first civilization in the Western hemisphere to do so. Many are of the opinion that there is no evidence to suggest that there was a writing system among the Olmec. However there are more recent indications that a writing system was developed by the Olmec. These include, Symbols found in 2002 and 2006 date to 650 B.C.E. and 900 B.C.E. respectively, preceding the oldest Zapotec writing dated to about 500 B.C.E. The 2002 find at the San Andrà ©s site shows a bird, speech scrolls, and glyphs that are similar to the later Mayan hieroglyphsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ The discovery of the Cascajal block near San Lorenzo in 2006 seems to suggest that the Olmec were one of the first cultures in this part of the word to develop a writing system. The Cascajal block à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦showed a set of 62 symbols, 28 of which are unique, carved on a serpentine block. This find has been hailed as the earliest pre-Colombian writing. However, this is by no means considered to be conclusive proof and many archeologists remain unconvinced that this block is representative of the Olmec culture. One of the reasons for this skepticism is that the Cascajal blockà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ bears no apparent resemblance to any other Mesoamerican writing system. However the debate also includes a view the Olmec may have developed a system of signs that was to lead to the writing systems of the Maya. This refers to well-known Epi-Olmec, hieroglyphs. There is a view that the Epi-Olmec may represent a à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦transitional script between an earlier Olmec writing system and Maya writing. In this regard it is also important to note that, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.Even less is known about the spoken language of the Olmec. Since the Mixe-Zoquean languages still are, and historically are known to have been, spoken in an area corresponding roughly to the Olmec heartland, it has generally been regarded as probable that the Olmec spoke a Mixe-Zoquean language. Many of the innovations ascribed to the Olmec are much less controversial; for example the view that the compass could have an Olmec origin. Various archeological discoveries have led to view that, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦the Olmec may have discovered and used the geomagnetic lodestone compass earlier than 1000 B.C.E. The Olmec are also considered to have discovered the concept of zero. This refers to the Long Count calendar that was developed by cultures after the Olmec but which probably had its origins in the Olmec civilization. The Long Count calendar required the use of zero as a place-holder within its vigesimal (base-20) positional numeral system. Many archeologists are convinced that because of various objects found in the Maya homeland, the Long Count Calendar most probably had its origins in the Olmec civilization. However, as with most of our knowledge about the Olmec, this view is also mired in doubt and controversy because of a lack of substantiated evidence Religion and mythology Figure 2. Olmec holds a half human-half jaguar baby. ( Source: http://www.crystalinks.com/olmec.html) The Olmec civilization was immersed in religious and spiritual significance. It is often stated that the supernatural and religion was the formative factor in this culture. It is also conjectured that the Olmec were essentially shamanistic in their religious activities and outlook. One of the central myths and beliefs of the Olmec people was the view that there were different but interlinked planes and dimensions to reality and not just the world of ordinary sense experience. They also believed that the human body, and especially the body of ruler or king, was divided into to correspond with the main cosmic levels in their mythology. These were the celestial or heavenly, the terrestrial, the earths surface and the watery underworld. This cosmology therefore had the following implications. The head represented the celestial realm and hence the colossal heads found in Veracruz and Tabasco were probably ancestral portraits depicting the seat of the mind and the most exalted part of the most important rulers. The bodies, standing, sitting or kneeling, represent our environment in different aspects. And the lower parts, like the limbs and feet, as the roots of a tree, penetrate into the underworld and contact its forces. The priest or the shaman enters into these different regions and levels of reality at will in order to achieve balance between the different realms of existence and to bring about healing and other effects. Furthermore, as noted in the above discussion on art, The ruler or the shaman could do this through ritual transformation into his nagual, his animal spirit companion. There are many different types and categories of Olmec gods. They also have different attributes and powers and different relationships to the human world; while some of the gods have healing powers, others represent dark forces. However, as there are no written records no names can be given to the gods and they are usually designated by a number. Another interesting fact is that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦No Olmec deities can be categorically defined as male or female. What is clear is that they influenced later Mesoamerican cultures and civilizations. The Olmec deities and Gods were a à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦source of many aspects of pan-Mesoamerican mythology and religion, and as prototypes of later gods and goddess. There are at least ten gods in the Olmec pantheon. The following is a brief overview of some of the central gods and deities and their major characteristic and influence on humanity. God 1: Olmec Dragon This is also referred to as Earth Monster. it has à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦flame eyebrows, a bulbous nose, and bifurcated tongue. This is one of the most commonly depicted gods or deities. God 2: Maize God This God has plants growing from as cleft in his head. God 3: The Bird Monster This God has both Mamalis and reptilian features and is linked to ruling and kingship. God 4: Rain Spirit and Were-jaguar It is not clear if this god is one or two separate entities. Other gods include, God 7, The Feathered Serpent and Fish or Shark Monster (God 8). There is as great deal of confusion about the exact nature of these gods and many are combined by some experts. In order to make list of Olmec gods more comprehensible, the following is a selection of the best known of these gods and the ones that have had the most influence on subsequent civilizations. The Jaguar God The Jaguar God was a principle deity in the Olmec mythology. It was seen as an Earth god as his power was limited to the terrestrial plane. This god represented the forces of life and was linked or the water and earth. The Feathered Serpent The plumed serpent or the feathered serpent is a mythological figure that is found in many cultures in Mesoamerica and it is believe that this figure originated with the Olmec culture. This god is linked to time and calendars and is seen as the provider of maize to humanity. It is also very strongly associated with the concepts of death and resurrection, which were primary factors in the Olmec religion, as is evident in their emphasis on ritual sacrifice. Man of Crops. This is an important fertility figure. The Man of Crops à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ was a human man or boy who chose to give his life so that his people might grow food. The heroic Man of Crops is sometimes mentored or assisted by a god figure from the other world. The Rain Spirit. This god plays an important role in Olmec mythology and was also carried into the civilizations that came after the Olmec. This god often had many helpers. As has already been referred to, the idea of sacrifice and making an offering to the gods in order to maintain harmony and peace was central to the Olmec culture. This involved a continuous succession of rituals and ceremonies where, it is suggested by some, that there were human sacrifices. In these rituals the priest or shaman would à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦cut himself to produce blood, which would be presented to the gods. Certain animals, such as turkeys, dogs, squirrels, quail, and iguana, were also considered as acceptable sacrifices. Some claim that there is strong evidence that the Olmec indulged in human sacrifice. However, others state that this is pure speculation. No Olmec or Olmec-influenced sacrificial artifacts have yet been discovered and there is no Olmec or Olmec-influenced artwork that unambiguously shows sacrificial victims (like, for example, the danzante figures of Monte Albà ¡n) or scenes of human sacrifice à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Conclusion: Decline of the Olmec In about 300 B.C. the Olmec civilization suddenly seemed to disappear. What is known is that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ between 400 and 350 BCE, population in the eastern half of the Olmec heartland dropped precipitously, and the area would remain sparsely inhabited until the 19th century. It is not clear why this occurred. One possible reason is that some natural catastrophe occurred. The depopulation could also have been the result of radical environmental changes in the area. Archeologists also suggest that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ these changes were triggered by tectonic upheavals or subsidence, or the silting up of rivers due to agricultural practices. While the Olmec civilization still remains shrouded in mystery and conjecture, what is very clear from the literature is that this culture had an enormous impact on the region and on the modern word. The Olmec left behind some examples of the most enigmatic and thought-provoking art that the world has seen. The Olmec also very possibly provided agricultural as well as economic models that were influential in the region and which led to the advanced Aztec civilization. What is also clear from the lite

Karl Marx and His View on Religion Essay -- Marx Religion Religious Es

Karl Marx and His View on Religion Karl Marx, the founder and main advocator of his Marxist philosophy, wrote the Communist Manifesto in 1848. This document was the basis for all of his thoughts and ideas of the world at the time being. One of the major topics that he spoken on was how religion affected the society and how it was an institution that was not actually necessary to exist. Marxist VS Religion Marx saw religion as an evil that existed in society and that it brought down all the people that believed in that religion. Marx said that, ?It [religion] is the opium of the people,?[1] and in saying this, Marx meant that religion was contagious on society. Once the society had a taste for the religion, they became totally engulfed it in, and then they do not want to get out of that way of live because they see it as a good way to live. Then even if people wanted to get out of the religion it was hard to get out because the whole society had already been infected by the ?opium.? With the idea of equality of all people no matter what race or previous financial situation, the concept of a god was in complete opposition of the Marxist philosophy. ?Marx?s idea of God as a projection of alienated human beings whereby God becomes in rich proportion as humanity becomes poor.?[2] Marx is criticizing society and their overall views of how religion should be treated. The society is letting God become the main focus of their lives, and since they are giving almost all their attention to God, they are becoming oblivious of the other members of the society and the relationships between each other. As society was becoming distracted by ... ...what they have in the natural life on earth. With everyone living under the regulations of Marx?s ?religion? no one would have to have another structure of life. Works Cited: 1. David McLellan, Marxism and Religion: a description and assessment of the Marxist critique of Christianity (New York: Harper & Row, 1987), 13. 2. McLellan, 5. 3. McLellan, 167. 4. Rev. John J. Ming, S.J., The Characteristics and the Religion of Modern Socialism, 2nd ed. (New York: Benziger Brothers, 1908), 202. 5. Ming, 9 6. Bohdan R. Bociurkiw and John W. Strong, Religion and Atheism in the U.S.S.R. and Eastern Europe (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1975), 13. 7. Ming, 224. 8. Bociurkiw and Strong, 10. 9. ?Marxism,? 2000, (28 October 2001), 1. 10. McLellan, 159.

The Vikings Capture and Use of Slaves

The Vikings have always been discussed throughout history as vicious people. The Viking Age lasted from the late eighth to eleventh centuries. The ancestors of the Vikings, called the Scandinavian people, traded with the Romans. Scandinavia was made up of five modern day European countries: Denmark, Norway, Finland, Iceland, and Sweden. 1 Some items that they traded included ivory, amber, skins, and furs. After the Roman Empire fell, the Scandinavian people living in Scandinavia became closer and stronger. Around the mid seventh century, the Scandinavian people used ships with sails and built large towns.At the end of the eighth century, the Scandinavian people began raiding parts of pre-modern Europe. During this time, the Scandinavian people began to be known as the Vikings. Most people in pre-modern Europe were afraid of the Viking’s raiding of their society, but the Vikings were really just seeking goods that they could trade for money. The Vikings were known as a range of different people including warriors, pirates, explorers, and merchants. The Vikings started in Scandinavia, but because of increase in population and limited land, they traveled all through Europe looking for new land to expand.But the question is, with these vicious people just raiding to look for goods to trade with and with limited land space, why did they capture slaves and how did they use and treat these slaves in their society? As you may know, the Vikings went from society to society in pre-modern Europe looking for goods including gold, jewelry, and livestock. However, the Vikings also captured children men and women from these societies and used them as slaves. Because of their limited land space, they traded most of these slaves for money. The Vikings got a majority of their slaves from Ireland.They began to get involved with a slave trade in Ireland. Slavery existed way before the Vikings came. Slaves made up a large population of trade for the Vikings. Once captured, m ost of the slaves were sold on the slave trade while others were sent to Scandinavia to become slaves of the Vikings. It has also been recorded that some laves captured from Ireland were sacrificed to heathen gods. The first attack in Ireland was in 795, and attacked approximately once a year for the next thirty to forty years. The Vikings heard of the riches that the Irish held and thought that this region would be the perfect place for the Viking people.During this attack, the Vikings mainly just raided the societies and only took some slaves, but continued to capture more slaves as time went on. For those whose fate it was to be in the trade were either sent to Iceland, Viking colonies in Britain, Islamic empires, or Byzantine empires. The Islamic and Byzantine empires contained luxury items that the Vikings wanted for the trade of slaves. These items included Byzantine silk and Arabic coins. The Vikings then used the silk and coins in trade for items from North Europe including more slaves and furs.Once these slaves were traded, they were usually required to do laborious work of the household. The treatment of these sold slaves varied from owner to owner. Some were treaded kindly while others were treated worse than livestock. Even though a majority of the captured slaves were sent to the slave trade, some of the slaves were sent back to Scandinavia to become slaves of the Vikings. The reason that all of these slaves did not go straight to Scandinavia was because of the over population in that area. If all of the slaves were used in this area, than more strain would be on the land and on the resources that it produces.The Viking society had a social class system. This caste system was separated into three classes. The highest class was called the jarls. This class was known as the noble class, the rich people of the Vikings. They were measured by their mass wealth in terms of followers, treasures, ships, and estates. They lived in fine halls and led refine d lives with countless activities. The power of each jarl depends on how many followers he has. The jarl, however, must take care of his followers. The first born of a jarl was also to become a jarl. The middle class in this system was called the karls.These people were free and owned land. They were considered the plain folks in the Viking society. They could include farmers and blacksmiths. The families of the karls usually lived in cluster homes that had their barns or workshops in the cluster. A karl could become a jarl if he gained enough fame and wealth. The lowest class in this system was called the praell. This class included slaves and bondsmen. If a man owed another man money and could not pay his debt back, he was to work for another man until his debt was paid. This would make him a bondsman, or basically a temporary slave.Also, the system’s laws stated that if a man was convicted as a theft, he could be handed over as a slave of whom he stole from. A slave could be freed, but would still be considered in the lowest caste system. The slaves at the bottom of this caste system were chattel. They hardly had any rights. They could not inherit anything or leave nothing after their death. They could not participate in any business transaction. The only relation a slave had with society was through his master. There were some branches of the culture that slaves were not allowed to take part in. These privileges of citizenship include military and jury services.Basically, a slave could not participate in these two services because they are institutions of free men in the Viking society. When a slave was no longer capable of work, due to old age disease or injury, they were put to death. The slaves of the Vikings did however have limited rights. They could accumulate property and save enough money to buy their freedom. Slaves could also marry. Even with these few rights, slaves were still considered to the Vikings as unreliable cowards who were stupi d and foul. The Vikings were polytheists. This means that they followed many gods. The father of the gods was Odin, the god of wisdom.Because of their religion and how the Vikings followed the gods, their slaves were expected to follow the same life and tasks deemed by the gods. Challenging this could mean death of the slave. A master could kill a slave and not be held accountable for it. The slaves of the Vikings had a variety of jobs that they did in the Viking society. Some of their daily work included things such as carrying loads of firewood, tending to the fields, feeding pigs and other farm animals, cutting peat, building fences, fertilizing crops, and making ropes. All of their tasks were mainly the tasks that their masters didn’t want to do.It was necessary for running a farm to have slaves working it. Slaves were used on both small and large farms. The plantation farm was not practiced with the Vikings. Slaves worked on family farms with hired help, but the slaves d id the harder work than the hired help. The women slaves that the Vikings captured who were young and beautiful were kept as servants, sexual trophies, or wives. Others were used, upon the death of their master, as a sacrifice. Female slaves were forced to have sexual advances their masters would place upon them. Slaves were allowed to form family unites, meaning having a wife and children.However, there was no religious ceremony or wedding that slaves could take part in. they were forced to content themselves with unions that did not have the approval of the church. Children born to female slaves became property of her master and a slave, but are born with some rights. However, there was not allowed to be any sexual relations or legal marriage between a free person and a slave. There was no penalty of a freeman having sexual relations with a slave. Also, a free man was allowed to marry a former slave, meaning that a free Viking could make a women slave his legal wife by giving her freedom.Illegitimate children were abundant in the slave population of the Vikings. A child born to a slave women and a free man can claim his freedom at birth only if the free father will adopt him. Once adopted, that child could be the heir of the father’s estate. When thinking of the Vikings and how they are discussed in history, people would not think that they were mainly traders. The Vikings have always been thought of as mean and vicious people that destroyed everything in their path. All that the Vikings wanted were riches. They traded many different kinds of goods including slaves. 4 The Vikings captured their slaves form Europe, mostly from Ireland. The slaves they traded were mainly sent to the Islamic and Byzantine empires. No one would think that the Vikings would be trading slaves for luxury items like gold, jewelry, and livestock. Not all of the slaves captured were sold, however. Due to the limited living space, only small portions of these captured slaves wer e sent back to Scandinavia. There is a caste system in the Viking society with three different classes, with slaves in the lowest class. The slaves that were sent to work for the Vikings were treated better than other slaves around the world.Yes, they had long hard jobs that their masters did not want to do, but they did have a few rights and opportunities of freedom. Male slaves were meant to tend to the fields and livestock while female slaves were used as sex trophies or wives. 17 Slaves were expected to listen to their masters and follow the lifestyle of their master’s religion. 19 The slaves of the Vikings were even allowed to form family units and have children, but could not have a formal marriage ceremony. 17 Slavery impacted the Viking society not only by aiding their masters in Scandinavia, but also by aiding the Vikings in trade with other societies.

Optical Character Recognition Is Becoming Popular Areas Of...

Project Title:OPTICAL CHARACTER RECOGNITION USING ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORKS Abstract: The Optical Character Recognition (OCR) is becoming popular areas of research under pattern recognition and smart device applications. It requires the intelligence like human brain to recognize the various handwritten characters. Artificial Neural Network (ANN) is used together the information required to recognize the characters adaptively. This paper presents a performance analysis of character recognition by Scale Invariant Feature (SIF) matrix with a Back Propagation Neural network (BPN). A GUI based OCR system is developed using Mat lab. The results are shown for the English alphabets and numeric. This is observed that the perceptron network converges faster, whereas the BPN can handle the complex script recognition when the training set is enriched. Keywords: Character recognition, back-propagation neural network, scale invariant feature Introduction: Automatic character recognition is a well-accepted area of research under pattern recognition. In handwritten character recognition, characters are written by different individuals that vary drastically from person to person due to variation in the writing style, its size and orientation of characters. This makes the system difficult to recognize the characters. Artificial Neural Network (ANN) helps to solve the problem of identifying handwritten characters in an automated manner. ANN is an adaptiveShow MoreRelatedManagment Information System25973 Words   |  104 Pagesof Hardware resources includes all physical devices and materials used in information processing. Specially, it includes not only machines, such as computers and other equipment, but also all data media, that is, all tangible objects on which data is recorded, from sheets of paper to magnetic disks. 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